Patógenos bacterianos y resistencia a los antibióticos en otitis media aguda / Bacterial pathogens and antimicrobial resistance in acute otitis media

Introducción: Estudios recientes señalan un aumento de la prevalencia de Haemophilus influenzae y una disminución de Streptococcus pneumoniae entre las bacterias causantes de otitis media aguda (OMA). El objetivo del estudio es conocer la distribución de microorganismos patógenos identificados en Urgencias en los menores de 14 años con OMA y su patrón de resistencias. Pacientes y métodos: Estudio retrospectivo, analítico y unicéntrico incluyendo pacientes menores de 14 años diagnosticados de OMA en los que se recogió un cultivo de secreción ótica en el servicio de urgencias pediátricas de un hospital terciario entre 2013 y 2021. Resultados: Durante el periodo de estudio se registraron 14.684 episodios con diagnóstico de OMA, recogiéndose en 768 cultivo de secreción ótica. La mediana de edad fue de 2 años, el 57% varones y el 70% habían presentado al menos una OMA previa. Los patógenos más frecuentemente aislados fueron: Haemophilus influenzae, 188 (24,5%; de ellos, 15,5% resistentes a ampicilina); Streptococcus pyogenes, 86 (11,2%); Staphylococcus aureus, 82 (10,7%); Streptococcus pneumoniae, 54 (6,9%; de ellos, 9,4% con resistencia intermedia a penicilina); Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 42 (5,5%) y Moraxella catarrhalis, 11 (1,4%). En el 34,9% no se aislaron patógenos. Conclusiones: Haemophilus influenzae es la primera causa de OMA en menores de 14 años. Este hecho, junto a la baja tasa de aislamientos y resistencia a penicilina de Streptococcus pneumoniae, cuestiona la idoneidad de la amoxicilina a dosis elevadas como tratamiento antibiótico empírico de la OMA.(AU)

Introduction: Recent studies show an increase in the prevalence of Haemophilus influenzae and a decrease in Streptococcus pneumoniae among the bacteria that cause acute otitis media (AOM). The objective of our study was to analyse the distribution of pathogens identified in children aged less than 14 years presenting to the emergency department with AOM and their patterns of antimicrobial resistance. Patients and methods: Single centre retrospective, analytical study in patients aged less than 14 years with a diagnosis of AOM in whom an ear drainage sample was collected for culture in the paediatric emergency department of a tertiary care hospital between 2013 and 2021. Results: During the study period, there were 14,684 documented care episodes corresponding to children with a diagnosis of AOM. An ear drainage culture was performed in 768 of those episodes. The median age of the patients was 2 years, 57% were male and 70% had a previous history of AOM. The most frequently isolated pathogens were: Haemophilus influenzae (n=188 [24.5%]; 15.5% of them resistant to ampicillin), Streptococcus pyogenes (n=86 [11.2%]), Staphylococcus aureus (n=82 [10.7%]), Streptococcus pneumoniae (n=54 [6.9%]; 9.4% with intermediate resistance to penicillin), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (n=42 [5.5%]) and Moraxella catarrhalis (n=11 [1.4%]). No pathogen was isolated in 34.9% of cases. Conclusions: Haemophilus influenzae is the leading cause of AOM in children aged less than 14 years. This, combined with the low frequency of isolation and penicillin resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae, calls into question the appropriateness of high-dose amoxicillin for empiric treatment of AOM.(AU)

Bacterial pathogens and antimicrobial resistance in acute otitis media.

INTRODUCTION: Recent studies show an increase in the prevalence of Haemophilus influenzae and a decrease in Streptococcus pneumoniae among the bacteria that cause acute otitis media (AOM). The objective of our study was to analyse the distribution of pathogens identified in children aged less than 14 years presenting to the emergency department with AOM and their patterns of antimicrobial resistance. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Single centre retrospective, analytical study in patients aged less than 14 years with a diagnosis of AOM in whom an ear drainage sample was collected for culture in the paediatric emergency department of a tertiary care hospital between 2013 and 2021. RESULTS: During the study period, there were 14 684 documented care episodes corresponding to children with a diagnosis of AOM. An ear drainage culture was performed in 768 of those episodes. The median age of the patients was 2 years, 57% were male and 70% had a previous history of AOM. The most frequently isolated pathogens were: Haemophilus influenzae (n = 188 [24.5%]; 15.5% of them resistant to ampicillin), Streptococcus pyogenes (n = 86 [11.2%]), Staphylococcus aureus (n = 82 [10.7%]), Streptococcus pneumoniae (n = 54 [6.9%]; 9.4% with intermediate resistance to penicillin), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (n = 42 [5.5%]) and Moraxella catarrhalis (n = 11 [1.4%]). No pathogen was isolated in 34.9% of cases. CONCLUSIONS: Haemophilus influenzae is the leading cause of AOM in children aged less than 14 years. This, combined with the low frequency of isolation and penicillin resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae, calls into question the appropriateness of high-dose amoxicillin for empiric treatment of AOM.

Impact of SARS-CoV-2 Infection on the Association Between Laboratory Tests and Severe Outcomes Among Hospitalized Children.

Background: To assist clinicians with identifying children at risk of severe outcomes, we assessed the association between laboratory findings and severe outcomes among severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-infected children and determined if SARS-CoV-2 test result status modified the associations. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of participants tested for SARS-CoV-2 infection in 41 pediatric emergency departments in 10 countries. Participants were hospitalized, had laboratory testing performed, and completed 14-day follow-up. The primary objective was to assess the associations between laboratory findings and severe outcomes. The secondary objective was to determine if the SARS-CoV-2 test result modified the associations. Results: We included 1817 participants; 522 (28.7%) SARS-CoV-2 test-positive and 1295 (71.3%) test-negative. Seventy-five (14.4%) test-positive and 174 (13.4%) test-negative children experienced severe outcomes. In regression analysis, we found that among SARS-CoV-2-positive children, procalcitonin ≥0.5 ng/mL (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 9.14; 95% CI, 2.90-28.80), ferritin >500 ng/mL (aOR, 7.95; 95% CI, 1.89-33.44), D-dimer ≥1500 ng/mL (aOR, 4.57; 95% CI, 1.12-18.68), serum glucose ≥120 mg/dL (aOR, 2.01; 95% CI, 1.06-3.81), lymphocyte count <1.0 × 109/L (aOR, 3.21; 95% CI, 1.34-7.69), and platelet count <150 × 109/L (aOR, 2.82; 95% CI, 1.31-6.07) were associated with severe outcomes. Evaluation of the interaction term revealed that a positive SARS-CoV-2 result increased the associations with severe outcomes for elevated procalcitonin, C-reactive protein (CRP), D-dimer, and for reduced lymphocyte and platelet counts. Conclusions: Specific laboratory parameters are associated with severe outcomes in SARS-CoV-2-infected children, and elevated serum procalcitonin, CRP, and D-dimer and low absolute lymphocyte and platelet counts were more strongly associated with severe outcomes in children testing positive compared with those testing negative.

Post-COVID-19 Conditions Among Children 90 Days After SARS-CoV-2 Infection.

Importance: Little is known about the risk factors for, and the risk of, developing post-COVID-19 conditions (PCCs) among children. Objectives: To estimate the proportion of SARS-CoV-2-positive children with PCCs 90 days after a positive test result, to compare this proportion with SARS-CoV-2-negative children, and to assess factors associated with PCCs. Design, Setting, and Participants: This prospective cohort study, conducted in 36 emergency departments (EDs) in 8 countries between March 7, 2020, and January 20, 2021, included 1884 SARS-CoV-2-positive children who completed 90-day follow-up; 1686 of these children were frequency matched by hospitalization status, country, and recruitment date with 1701 SARS-CoV-2-negative controls. Exposure: SARS-CoV-2 detected via nucleic acid testing. Main Outcomes and Measures: Post-COVID-19 conditions, defined as any persistent, new, or recurrent health problems reported in the 90-day follow-up survey. Results: Of 8642 enrolled children, 2368 (27.4%) were SARS-CoV-2 positive, among whom 2365 (99.9%) had index ED visit disposition data available; among the 1884 children (79.7%) who completed follow-up, the median age was 3 years (IQR, 0-10 years) and 994 (52.8%) were boys. A total of 110 SARS-CoV-2-positive children (5.8%; 95% CI, 4.8%-7.0%) reported PCCs, including 44 of 447 children (9.8%; 95% CI, 7.4%-13.0%) hospitalized during the acute illness and 66 of 1437 children (4.6%; 95% CI, 3.6%-5.8%) not hospitalized during the acute illness (difference, 5.3%; 95% CI, 2.5%-8.5%). Among SARS-CoV-2-positive children, the most common symptom was fatigue or weakness (21 [1.1%]). Characteristics associated with reporting at least 1 PCC at 90 days included being hospitalized 48 hours or more compared with no hospitalization (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 2.67 [95% CI, 1.63-4.38]); having 4 or more symptoms reported at the index ED visit compared with 1 to 3 symptoms (4-6 symptoms: aOR, 2.35 [95% CI, 1.28-4.31]; ≥7 symptoms: aOR, 4.59 [95% CI, 2.50-8.44]); and being 14 years of age or older compared with younger than 1 year (aOR, 2.67 [95% CI, 1.43-4.99]). SARS-CoV-2-positive children were more likely to report PCCs at 90 days compared with those who tested negative, both among those who were not hospitalized (55 of 1295 [4.2%; 95% CI, 3.2%-5.5%] vs 35 of 1321 [2.7%; 95% CI, 1.9%-3.7%]; difference, 1.6% [95% CI, 0.2%-3.0%]) and those who were hospitalized (40 of 391 [10.2%; 95% CI, 7.4%-13.7%] vs 19 of 380 [5.0%; 95% CI, 3.0%-7.7%]; difference, 5.2% [95% CI, 1.5%-9.1%]). In addition, SARS-CoV-2 positivity was associated with reporting PCCs 90 days after the index ED visit (aOR, 1.63 [95% CI, 1.14-2.35]), specifically systemic health problems (eg, fatigue, weakness, fever; aOR, 2.44 [95% CI, 1.19-5.00]). Conclusions and Relevance: In this cohort study, SARS-CoV-2 infection was associated with reporting PCCs at 90 days in children. Guidance and follow-up are particularly necessary for hospitalized children who have numerous acute symptoms and are older.

Late-onset Group B Streptococcus Bacteremia Evaluated in the Pediatric Emergency Department and Risk Factors for Severe Infection.

BACKGROUND: To describe the infants presenting to pediatric emergency departments (PEDs) and diagnosed with group B Streptococcus (GBS) late-onset disease (LOD) bacteremia and identify risk factors for severe infection and pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) admission. METHODS: Observational study and subanalysis of a multicenter prospective registry. Setting: pediatric emergency department. Inclusion criteria: infants between 7 and 89 days of age with positive blood culture for GBS seen between 2011 and 2016 at any of 22 Spanish PEDs. Main outcome: risk factors (clinical and laboratory variables) for severe infection (sepsis/septic shock or meningitis) and PICU admission. Second, the prevalence of poor outcomes (acute complications, sequelae or death). RESULTS: Among 118 patients with LOD, 74 (62.7%) presented a severe infection: 66 sepsis/septic shock (11 with associated meningitis) and 8 meningitis. Thirty-five patients (29.7%) were admitted to a PICU. An altered Pediatric Assessment Triangle (PAT) upon arrival and leukopenia were the only independent risk factors for severe infection [odds ratio (OR): 43.6; 95% confidence interval (CI): 8.1-235.7, P < 0.01] and PICU admission (OR: 11.6; 95% CI: 1.5-91.4; P < 0.019), respectively. Six patients (5.1%) developed a poor outcome, including 2 deaths (1.7%); all had an altered PAT, elevated procalcitonin (range 4.7-100 ng/ml), and were diagnosed with sepsis/septic shock and admitted to a PICU. Four developed leukopenia. CONCLUSIONS: Infants with GBS LOD frequently develop sepsis/septic shock and bacterial meningitis, associated with non-negligible morbidity and mortality. Clinical appearance was the only risk factor for severe infection, whereas leukopenia was related to PICU admission.

Outcomes of SARS-CoV-2-Positive Youths Tested in Emergency Departments: The Global PERN-COVID-19 Study.

Importance: Severe outcomes among youths with SARS-CoV-2 infections are poorly characterized. Objective: To estimate the proportion of children with severe outcomes within 14 days of testing positive for SARS-CoV-2 in an emergency department (ED). Design, Setting, and Participants: This prospective cohort study with 14-day follow-up enrolled participants between March 2020 and June 2021. Participants were youths aged younger than 18 years who were tested for SARS-CoV-2 infection at one of 41 EDs across 10 countries including Argentina, Australia, Canada, Costa Rica, Italy, New Zealand, Paraguay, Singapore, Spain, and the United States. Statistical analysis was performed from September to October 2021. Exposures: Acute SARS-CoV-2 infection was determined by nucleic acid (eg, polymerase chain reaction) testing. Main Outcomes and Measures: Severe outcomes, a composite measure defined as intensive interventions during hospitalization (eg, inotropic support, positive pressure ventilation), diagnoses indicating severe organ impairment, or death. Results: Among 3222 enrolled youths who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 infection, 3221 (>99.9%) had index visit outcome data available, 2007 (62.3%) were from the United States, 1694 (52.6%) were male, and 484 (15.0%) had a self-reported chronic illness; the median (IQR) age was 3 (0-10) years. After 14 days of follow-up, 735 children (22.8% [95% CI, 21.4%-24.3%]) were hospitalized, 107 (3.3% [95% CI, 2.7%-4.0%]) had severe outcomes, and 4 children (0.12% [95% CI, 0.03%-0.32%]) died. Characteristics associated with severe outcomes included being aged 5 to 18 years (age 5 to <10 years vs <1 year: odds ratio [OR], 1.60 [95% CI, 1.09-2.34]; age 10 to <18 years vs <1 year: OR, 2.39 [95% CI 1.38-4.14]), having a self-reported chronic illness (OR, 2.34 [95% CI, 1.59-3.44]), prior episode of pneumonia (OR, 3.15 [95% CI, 1.83-5.42]), symptoms starting 4 to 7 days prior to seeking ED care (vs starting 0-3 days before seeking care: OR, 2.22 [95% CI, 1.29-3.82]), and country (eg, Canada vs US: OR, 0.11 [95% CI, 0.05-0.23]; Costa Rica vs US: OR, 1.76 [95% CI, 1.05-2.96]; Spain vs US: OR, 0.51 [95% CI, 0.27-0.98]). Among a subgroup of 2510 participants discharged home from the ED after initial testing and who had complete follow-up, 50 (2.0%; 95% CI, 1.5%-2.6%) were eventually hospitalized and 12 (0.5%; 95% CI, 0.3%-0.8%) had severe outcomes. Compared with hospitalized SARS-CoV-2-negative youths, the risk of severe outcomes was higher among hospitalized SARS-CoV-2-positive youths (risk difference, 3.9%; 95% CI, 1.1%-6.9%). Conclusions and Relevance: In this study, approximately 3% of SARS-CoV-2-positive youths tested in EDs experienced severe outcomes within 2 weeks of their ED visit. Among children discharged home from the ED, the risk was much lower. Risk factors such as age, underlying chronic illness, and symptom duration may be useful to consider when making clinical care decisions.

Repeated Emergency Department Visits Among Children with Invasive Bacterial Infections.

We carried out a retrospective cohort study of 271 previously healthy children younger than 14 years old diagnosed with invasive bacterial infection in an emergency department. Of them, 72 (26.6%) had previous visits to the emergency department. Not identifying children with an invasive bacterial infection and not administering antibiotics on the first visit was associated with a severe outcome.

Paediatric Escherichia coli bacteraemia presentations and high-risk factors in the emergency department.

AIM: Escherichia coli (E coli) is a known cause of paediatric bacteraemia. The main objective was to characterise the emergency department (ED) presentations of paediatric E coli bacteraemia and secondarily to identify those related to greater severity. METHODS: This was a sub-study of a multicentre cross-sectional prospective registry including all with E coli bacteraemia episodes between 2011 and 2016. We used multiple correspondence and cluster analysis to identify different patterns. RESULTS: We included 291 patients and 43 met criteria for severe disease (14.3%, 95% confidence interval 11.2-19.3). We identified four types of paediatric E coli bacteraemia presentations. Two (178 patients, 61.2%) were related to well-appearing previously healthy infants with associated urinary tract infection (UTI). Well-appearing children older than 12 months old with underlying disease (n = 60, 20.6%) and non-well-appearing children of different ages (n = 53, 18.2%) corresponded to the other two types; these had associated UTI infrequently and higher severity rate (15% and 50.9%, respectively, higher when compared with the two previous types, P < .01), including the two patients who died. CONCLUSION: There were four different types of ED paediatric E coli bacteraemia presentations with different severity. Febrile young children with associated UTI showed the best outcome.

Occult Bacteremia in Young Children with Very High Fever Without a Source: A Multicenter Study.

We carried out a prospective multicenter study including 203 previously healthy well-appearing children who were 3-24 months old with fever without a source ≥40.5°C. Thirty-one (15.3%, 95% confidence interval 11.0-20.9) were diagnosed with serious bacterial infection, including 6 with bacteremia (3%, 95% confidence interval 1.4-6.3). Testing for occult bacteremia in children 3-24 months old with fever without a source should be considered when fever at ≥40.5°C.

Impacto de la vacunación en embarazadas sobre la reemergencia de la tosferina y su forma de presentación en urgencias / Impact of whooping cough vaccine during pregnancy on the resurgence of the disease and its form of presentation in paediatric emergency departments

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[Clinical Practice Guide for Anaphylaxis in Latin America (Galaxia-Latam)]. / Guía de Actuación en Anafilaxia en Latinoamérica. Galaxia-Latam.

Anaphylaxis is a severe allergic reaction with a rapid onset and it is potentially life-threatening. Its clinical manifestations are varied; they may affect the skin, the cardiovascular system, the respiratory system, and the digestive system, among others. The treatment of choice, which is an intra-muscular injection of epinephrine (adrenaline), must be applied promptly. Therefore, being prepared to recognize it properly is of crucial importance. The objective of this clinical practice guide is to improve the knowledge of health professionals about anaphylaxis and, consequently, to optimize the treatment and long-term management of this reaction. This guide is adapted to the peculiarities of Latin America; especially in matters regarding the treatment. The need to introduce epinephrine auto-injectors in countries that don't have them yet is highlighted.

La anafilaxia es una reacción alérgica grave de instauración rápida y potencialmente mortal. Sus manifestaciones clínicas son muy variadas, pudiendo afectar la piel, el sistema cardiovascular, el aparato respiratorio y el digestivo, entre otros. El tratamiento de elección, mediante la inyección intramuscular de adrenalina, debe ser precoz. Por lo anterior, es vital estar preparados para reconocerla adecuadamente. El objetivo de la presente guía de actuación clínica es mejorar el conocimiento de los profesionales sanitarios sobre anafilaxia y, consecuentemente, optimizar el tratamiento y manejo a largo plazo de esta entidad. La guía está adaptada a las peculiaridades de América Latina, especialmente en los aspectos relativos al tratamiento. Se destaca la necesidad de introducir los autoinyectores de adrenalina en los países que no dispongan de ellos.

Expert panel diagnosis demonstrated high reproducibility as reference standard in infectious diseases.

OBJECTIVE: If a gold standard is lacking in a diagnostic test accuracy study, expert diagnosis is frequently used as reference standard. However, interobserver and intraobserver agreements are imperfect. The aim of this study was to quantify the reproducibility of a panel diagnosis for pediatric infectious diseases. STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING: Pediatricians from six countries adjudicated a diagnosis (i.e., bacterial infection, viral infection, or indeterminate) for febrile children. Diagnosis was reached when the majority of panel members came to the same diagnosis, leaving others inconclusive. We evaluated intraobserver and intrapanel agreement with 6 weeks and 3 years' time intervals. We calculated the proportion of inconclusive diagnosis for a three-, five-, and seven-expert panel. RESULTS: For both time intervals (i.e., 6 weeks and 3 years), intrapanel agreement was higher (kappa 0.88, 95%CI: 0.81-0.94 and 0.80, 95%CI: NA) compared to intraobserver agreement (kappa 0.77, 95%CI: 0.71-0.83 and 0.65, 95%CI: 0.52-0.78). After expanding the three-expert panel to five or seven experts, the proportion of inconclusive diagnoses (11%) remained the same. CONCLUSION: A panel consisting of three experts provides more reproducible diagnoses than an individual expert in children with lower respiratory tract infection or fever without source. Increasing the size of a panel beyond three experts has no major advantage for diagnosis reproducibility.

Prevalence of Occult Bacteremia in Infants With Very High Fever Without a Source.

We carried out a prospective registry-based cohort study at the emergency department of 363 previously healthy well-appearing infants 3-24 months of age with fever without a source ≥40.5°C based on local protocol. Four were diagnosed with occult bacteremia (1.1%; 95% confidence interval: 0-2.2). Recommendations for nontesting for occult bacteremia screening in these children may have to be reconsidered when fever ≥40.5°C. Larger studies are needed to confirm these results.